The management of ungulates in Europe represents a success story in wildlife conservationthrough regulated hunting. Both at European and Italian level, wild ungulate populations have recorded a significant increase in recent decades, thanks in large part to management practices that actively involve hunters.
The “Ungulate Hunting Report 2025” by the Federation of European Hunters-FACE highlights that the Regulated hunting is a modern tool for wildlife managementIt's not just a tradition, but it actively contributes to the conservation of biodiversity, maintaining balanced populations, protecting habitats, and reducing conflicts between humans and wildlife.
Hunting in Europe It prevents ungulate overpopulation, which could lead to habitat degradation and increased disease risk. It generates economic and social benefits, supports rural livelihoods, and promotes healthy ecosystems. It provides high-quality, locally sourced game meat with a low carbon footprint, contributing to more sustainable food systems that respect the climate and nature.
Harvest estimates and main species in Europe
The report, based on harvest data from 34 European countries, provides a comprehensive overview of ungulate hunting on the continent. Despite successes, challenges remain, such as habitat loss, climate change, and the need to manage invasive species. Accurate collection and reporting of harvest data is essential for evidence-based decision-making and ensuring long-term sustainability.
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)
It is the most numerous and widely distributed species in Europe and, therefore, also the most hunted, with an estimated annual catch of 3,8 million individuals (3,7 million in 2023) in 33 countries. Germany is the country with the largest harvest (approximately 1,3 million), followed by France (approximately 600.000). Several other countries harvest between 100.000 and 250.000 individuals, but most countries harvest fewer than 100.000 roe deer annually. Its populations have increased significantly since the 80s, adapting well to human-modified environments and benefiting from the increase in forested areas.
Wild boar (Sus scrofa)
The second most hunted species, with over 3,3 million individuals Wild boar harvested in 31 countries. France recorded the highest harvest (approximately 850.000), followed by Germany (550.000) and Spain (450.000). Wild boar populations are increasing throughout Europe due to factors such as agricultural intensification, climate change, increased food availability, and high reproductive rates.
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
The third most significant large species, with a total catch of approximately 1,1 million individuals in 30 countries. Bulgaria and Spain are the countries with the largest harvests (approximately 330.000 each). The red deer population and range have increased significantly over time in Europe, and hunting and land use have a more significant impact on deer density than large predators. 
Other significant species in Europe:
Fallow Deer (Dama dama)
Circa 610.000 individuals Collected in 24 countries, with the United Kingdom and Bulgaria accounting for about half of the total. It is a widely distributed species and has been introduced into many countries.
Moose (Alces alces)
Predominantly collected in Sweden, Finland and Norway, with numbers ranging from 25.000 to 50.000 individuals (total approx. 115.000 (in 5 countries). Hunting is strictly regulated, and populations are generally robust, but affected by ecological factors such as climate change and habitat loss.
Mouflon (Ovis aries)
Collected in 20 countries, with an annual total of approximately 62.000 individualsThe largest numbers of animals were taken from Spain (around 17.000) and the Czech Republic (around 11.000).
Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra & Rupicapra pyrenaica)
The withdrawal is approximately 70.000 individuals in 13 countries. The Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) is predominant, with Austria, France, Italy, and Switzerland recording the highest numbers. The Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) accounts for approximately 7% of the total harvest. Some subspecies are threatened and require urgent conservation action.
Introduced Species
Sika deer (Cervus nippon)
Circa 70.000 heads Collected in six countries, primarily the United Kingdom (approximately 40.000) and Ireland (approximately 26.000). This species can hybridize with native red deer and will likely be included in the EU's list of invasive alien species of concern.
Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
Mainly taken in the UK (approx. 108.000 individuals in 2020), with small numbers in Ireland and Belgium. It is an invasive alien species with potential impacts on forests and plants.
Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis)
Collected in the UK alone, with an estimated 20.250 individuals in 2020.
Axis Deer (Axis axis):
Only 32 individuals were collected in Croatia. It is included in the EU list of invasive alien species due to its invasive nature and potential impact on local ecosystems.
The hunting situation for ungulates in Italy
In Italy, wild ungulates are a significant component of numerous habitats, a coveted prey among hunters and represent a significant management challenge for population containment and mitigation of damage to agriculture. ungulate populations in Italy are growing after a decline in the post-war period and in the 60s.
Il boar is to rely onmost numerous wild ungulate in Italy, widespread practically throughout the peninsula, with the exception of some areas of the Po Valley, the Adriatic coast, part of Puglia and some areas of Sicily. Its notable presence is due to its great capacity for adaptation, but it also causes a high negative impact on crops (digging in the soil) and on local ecosystems (predation of bird eggs). The most recent estimates (2015) indicate over a million headsThe FACE study indicates that 300.000 heads of cattle were collected in Italy.
Il roe it is one of the wild Italian ungulates most widespread (and the most common in Europe), it extends to public parks and gardens. Present in the Po Valley, the Apennines, the Prealps, and the Alps, preferring plains, hills, or low mountains. Estimated 456.000 examples in 2010, with the impression that the population has increased in recent years. It is the species most affected by selective hunting activities, estimated by FACE at 100.000 heads.
Il cervo is the largest Italian ungulate mammal, widespread in the Alps and Prealps, with a rate of expansion that is bringing it increasingly frequently to the Apennines. After having risked disappearing between the 17th and 19th centuries and having been considered extinct after the Second World War, thanks to protection measures and reintroductions, it was estimated approximately 70.000 heads in 2010Of particular interest are the Sardinian and Mesola populations. Its distribution in Italy is 44,7% of the provinces. According to FACE, harvests are less than 10.000 heads.
Il fallow deer it is considered one allochthonous species Introduced in Italy in the Middle Ages. It prefers open wooded areas, avoiding mountainous ones, and is mainly present in the central Apennines and the surrounding hilly areas. There are approximately 20.000 heads, but no effort is being made to encourage its spread to favor native species and prevent territorial competition. Its presence affects 52,4% of the provinces.
Lo ibex it is the only wild Italian ungulate present exclusively in the Alpine arcDeclared a protected species in 1977, its population was close to 15.000 examples in 2010The historic colony is located in Gran Paradiso, from where it was taken for reintroduction throughout the Alpine range.
Il mouflon It is a non-native species of eastern origin, introduced for hunting purposes. It prefers hilly or low mountain environments. Its distribution is uneven, mainly in the Alpine arc, the central-northern Apennines, Gargano, and Sardinia. Estimated population: 20.000 heads, especially in Sardinia, where it is protected and not huntable. Mouflons live in 32% of Italian provinces.
In the Italian Alps lives the largest European population of Alpine chamois, estimated at 137.000 headsIt is expanding in number and present in 21,4% of the provinces.
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Il Apennine chamois (or Abruzzo chamois) It is an endemic species present only in specific national parks of the central Apennines (Sibillini, Gran Sasso, Majella, Abruzzo). Estimated approximately 1.200 specimens, a remarkable figure considering that it was at risk of extinction. Its distribution is limited to 3,9% of the provinces.
The growth of ungulate populations and their increasing interference with human activities (agriculture, road accidents, disease transmission) have led many regions to review hunting regulations. Wild boar, in particular, is responsible for85% of damage to agriculture, with millions of euros in damages. Road accidents involving wild boars and roe deer have increased significantly (e.g., Tuscany, from 188 in 2001 to 478 in 2008). Wild boar killings have also increased exponentially (for example, in Emilia Romagna, from less than 600 in 1985 to 21.000 in 2012).ISPRA (Higher Institute for Environmental Protection and Research), in collaboration with associations, has started a project for the creation of a “Database on the distribution, size and management of wild ungulates in Italy” (BDU)The aim is to survey the wildlife population, study its status, evolution, and relationship with the environment, collecting data on distribution, population size, hunting, reintroductions, and damage. This initiative aims to promote more widespread data collection and accelerate data entry, with the direct involvement of the hunting community.
Comparison between Europe and Italy
The comparison reveals that Both Europe and Italy have experienced a significant increase in wild ungulate populations, largely thanks to sustainable management that includes regulated hunting.
Populations of key species such as roe deer, wild boar, and red deer are growing in both contexts. Hunting is recognized as one fundamental tool for population management, to prevent overpopulation, mitigate damage and support biodiversity. Both contexts address issues related tohuman-wildlife interaction, such as agricultural damage, road accident risks, and potential disease transmission, exacerbated by the increasing population of ungulates. Climate change and habitat loss are also shared challenges. The need for accurate, evidence-based data is emphasized in both cases for effective management and policy formulation.
Hunting policies in Europe are subject to constant adjustment. In Italy, hunting laws are constantly evolving at the regional level, especially for problematic species like wild boar, to achieve stocking density targets and implement population control plans.
Regulated hunting, in Europe as in Italy, is not a simple recreational activity, but a essential pillar of wildlife management, which contributes to the resilience of ecosystems and the conservation of natural heritage by ensuring that wildlife populations are managed through informed harvest strategies.
